Critical Perspectives - Translation of Media Forms & The Implications of New Media

Translation of Media Forms 
TRANSLATION OF TEXTS AND INFORMATION

• Moving image media, such as TV, are in the business of TRANSLATION  
• Ie converting thought, feeling, information and stories into MOVING PICTURES. 
• This process is more complex and layered than it might first appear. 
• IMAGES and SOUNDS communicate in a different way to the WRITTEN WORD

NEWS FACTS AND FICTION TEXTS  

Both news journalism and fiction adaptors must NEGOTIATE and INTERPRET information which they acquire into PICTURES AND SOUNDS. 

Considerations in adapting texts  

Some argue that filmmaking is more akin to the storytelling conventions of a novel than that of a stage play, as neither have the immediacy of the stage. 

Differences in storytelling Page -> screen  

Truncated storytelling is often a consequence of telling a news story or adapting a text to the screen. 

However, there can also be an efficiency afforded by presenting a story in a visual medium which is more time-consuming in a novel

• Eg Cross cutting - Simultaneously telling a story whilst also establishing the setting etc through the mise en scene.
•  But what does this do to the story itself ? What meaning is created in this process of juxtaposition - issues? 

One vision one text  

In contrast to the written word, film and television are the result of a collaborative process which involves a cast and crew of many –

• Costume, make-up, Set & props 
• Actors, reporters, presenters 
• Director 
• Producer 
• Writers
• Camera and sound crew 
• Financiers and distributors/tv networks

 

This difference is a vital component in understanding the different processes involved in realizing each vision 

• on paper and on screen there are considerations and influences which are not necessarily better or worse than each other, but are simply inherently different. 

Interpretation 

• Filmmakers need to look to the source material or text for clues which can assist the visualisation process. 
• However – in keeping an audience interested, there is a tension between accuracy and the demands of ‘good storytelling – 
• Eg impose dramatic tension on something 

Practical considerations

• Bringing a story to a screen has to overcome hurdles which do not occur in print – 
• LOCATIONS 
• CAST 
• VISUALISATIONS – 
• Whether it is the challenge of visiting different parts of the world, re-creating a long since gone period of history or allowing someone to experience a situation which would not normally be accessible, filmmakers can find themselves to accurately and efficiently achieve what is necessary to ‘honour’ and re-tell the story. 
• Furthermore, commercial pressure can mean that contentious subject-matters less likely to be commissioned - nervous of the negative publicity or lawsuits. 
• Consequently - filmmakers can end up watering- down the content to something deemed more palatable in order to gain the funding necessary.  

Fiction Adaptation - Introduction 

• WHAT IS FICTION ADAPTATION 
• The process translating a written text to the screen, big or small, is one of adaptation. 
• Adaptions of literary works are a cornerstone of television drama output in the UK and throughout the world 
• WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS OF THIS - McDougal argues that 
• “With a successful adaptation, the original work is transformed into something new and different, although retaining many traces of what it was formerly.” (McDougal, S.Y:1985:4) 
• In doing so filmmakers are challenged with attempting to interpret the written word into a visual medium, distilling the book into a film of palatable length and construction. So how do they go about doing this?  

Using a text - clues 

• Pioneering Russian filmmaker and theorist Sergei Eisenstein has suggested that novels themselves contain written denotations of visual filmmaking techniques such as fades, dissolves, close-ups, composition and edit techniques. (McDougal, S.Y: 1985:6)  
• Indeed, it has been argued that there are many similarities in the basic storytelling methods of both mediums. 

WHO’S THE AUTEUR? 

• The influence of the author or the various individuals involved in the creative process of adapting the film varies greatly depending on the individuals concerned. 
• In some instances novelists become intrinsically involved in the adaptive process by taking on the roll of script writer or producer or another production role on the project.
• In other cases, the actors or director may dominate the interpretation of the material. 

FIDELITY 

• Faithfulness to the of the original text (aka fidelity) is a central concern of adaptation theory. 
• Often critics, particularly those who were knowledgeable and loyal fans of the original text, will be particularly critical of adaptations – as Robert Stam explained: 
• “…their drift seems always to be the same – the book was better” (Stam, R.:2004:3)

What do we mean by an unfaithful adaptation?  

• Somehow the original text – if not sufficiently ‘honored’ – lacks what was ‘most appreciated’ in the original. 
• Significant ‘salient features’ need recognition in the adaptation to satisfy the ‘fans’. 
• When an adaptation is described as ‘unfaithful’ it lacks “the fundamental narrative, thematic and aesthetic features of its literary source….our feeling [that] when we have loved a book that an adaptation has not been worth of that love” (Stam, R. 2004:54) 

Is fidelity really desirable?

• It has been argued that fidelity is something which can limit the filmic potential. 
• Restrictive and unachievable? 
• Films are intrinsically collaborative and evolutionary

Fidelity to the ‘fans’ 

• It is worth considering that fidelity is not merely applicable to the source text, but also to the legions of die-hard fans for whom the text is a thing of love and even obsession 
• As Carroll puts it: “fidelity…not simply to the source text but more broadly to the conventions of a genre which the original audience will be familiar but into which the less knowing audience must be inducted” (Carroll, R:2009:3) 

Why choose a ‘classic’? 

• Popularity – many classic novels are part of our collective consciousness. § Taught in school, adapted for tv, used as the inspiration for parodies and popular culture – their influence is evident in many places. 
• Copyright free! – many classics are no longer copyrighted and are thus free of that particular financial hurdle. 

Should you please the purists? 

• Yes – classics are popular – this is, however, a mixed blessing. 
• With this popularity comes, inevitably, fans. § Purists may argue that to do anything less than follow to the letter the words of such authors is a travesty. 
• However, when translating a written work into a visual form, interpretation in that visualisation is almost inevitable. 

Adaptor’s ideology 

• Inevitably adaptation involves the adaptor’s personal take on, not only the story itself, but its wider implications and even the prevailing ideology of the time:
• Shakespeare has been a source of inspiration for adaptations on stage, screen, tv and radio for generations – adaptations of his works were a source of propaganda for National Socialists during WWII. 
• Similarly the story of Jekyll and Hyde was adapted in 1920 during the start of Prohibition in the US – it used the ‘demon drink’ as the root of Jeykll’s sexual downfall. 

Director’s influence 

• Add to the adaptor’s influence that of the director – the person taking the script from page to screen. This involves yet another set of influences: 
• Their style and influences (as auteur) 
• Ideology ú Interpretation of the original text – the list is endless. 
• They seek to shape the written script into a visual form and to direct actors on their delivery. 

Performer’s influence 

• Another important influence is that of the performers themselves. 
• Again –the same potential precepts will form and influence their interpretation of their own roles. 
• Certain actors may even bring with them such celebrity that that in itself colours their performance, Consider the impact of Burton and Taylor’s performance of Taming of the Shrew. How interlaced was their interpretations with their screen personas, their own relationship and that of the text being portrayed?

RE-CAP

• Updating classics offers them to a new audience beyond the realms of the ‘classic’ and to apply their themes and characters to a different or newer context.
• The process of adaptation - from collaboration, to interpretations by writers, actors and directors, to prevailing ideology and even to budgets and timescales - is problematic when attempting pure fidelity to the text. 
• Classics such as Sherlock Holmes and the works of Shakespeare lend themselves to populist adaptation due to their resonant themes, universality and role as a recognisable cultural reference point in society. 
• Frequently adapted classics help to frame stories in society and the visualisation of the characters therein often owe as much to screen adaptation as to the original texts. § New media is impacting upon storytelling possibilities and offers them to a new audience whilst engaging with enthusiasts through its interactive platform. 
• ESSAY PREP & SUPPORT 
• You should by now have chosen your essay title. 
• Individually, ensure you refine your essay research plan – 
• PLANNED READING LIST – research and reserve/order books and find online sources. 
• BIBLIOGRAPHY – add all details of the above to your bibliography. 
• PLANNED VIEWING LIST – research potential viewing material and begin to view – REMEMBER E-STREAM! 
• ESSAY PLAN – Consider the content for :   Intro (overview of what you will tackle and areas to explore)   Main body – structure into a list (logical developing argument)   Conclusion – summary of your all of your main findings – written after completed! 
• Consider: 
• What attributes of the original text have remained? 
• Why were these chosen? 
• What were the benefits in terms of storytelling of updating this classic? 
• How can modern multi platform methods of broadcast benefit from such updates? 
• Target audience – same as books? 

IMPACT OF NEW MEDIA & MOBILE TECHNOLOGY 

• New media is presenting new storytelling opportunities and ways of engaging and empowering the audience. 
• Internet, mobile and convergent technology - competing directly for audiences – has brought with it a number of inescapable changes.

• Firstly – the audience have ‘fragmented’ i.e. they seek out information and entertainment from a variety of sources other than TV 
• Secondly – the audience itself is becoming a new source of content e.g. YouTubers, bloggers and Vloggers. 
• Thirdly – interactivity and self-scheduling (on demand and live recording) has given an active involvement to a previously relatively passive audience

New Media Effect

• The effect of this on broadcasters is clearly evident : “Our journalism is now fully embracing the experiences of our audiences, sharing their stories, using their knowledge and hosting their opinions; we’re acting as a conduit between different parts of our audience” (Helen Boaden, BBC News Director, 2008) 
• "USER GENERATED CONTENT’ (UGC) increasingly part of TV news storytelling – CATALYST - the South Asian tsunami of 2004 and in Britain the London Bombings of 2005.
• During this time footage from mobile telephones allowed news programmes to cover the event as never before. 
• News programmes would have struggled to tell the story with such speed and diversity.
• This has resulted in TV News producers actively seeking out images from ‘ordinary’ people on the ground 

Case Study: 2005 London Bombings

• Internet became a principle news source, BBC amongst the first to break the story online. (Wall, M.:2012 :17) 
• Space quickly made to allow traffic online from eyewitnesses – facilitating this interaction and encouraging citizen journalism. 
• E.g. BBC created “London explosions: your accounts” page 
• Helen Boaden then BBC Director of News, commented “People were sending us images within minutes…before we even knew there was a bomb” - . Given access problems the TV networks found it a rich resource
• Similarly Guardian Unlimited allowed space for UGC – peaked at 770,000 page views between 1 & 2pm that day – equivalent to 213 pages per second 
• Personal blogs source of information for major news sites – online diaries from Londoners who witnessed or were involved in the chaos. 
• Operating outside news organisations, Bloggers were able to provide names of people affected, safety and travel advice as well as general commentary and critique. 
• Photo sharing websites (such as Moblog.co.uk Flickr.com and www.boingboing.net) allowed passengers to load images of themselves trapped underground. 
• Within 8 hours over 300 bombing images had been uploaded and were subsequently tagged.

Are we all journalists now?

• Not merely an addition to traditional TV news coverage, but emerging new media ‘CITIZEN JOURNALISTS’ provide whole new news source and platform with a whole new agenda….. ¡
• One created not by professional journalists and elite voices, but by ‘ordinary’ people who do not work for a professional media organisation 
• However, ‘CITIZEN JOURNALISM’ itself as a concept is NOT new or indeed merely a product of new media. 
• it’s a phenomena which dates back centuries 
• notably in Britain to the time of the 17th century Civil War, where Royalists and their rival Parliamentarians would publish newspapers freely criticising each other. 
• Think about the iconic cine footage of JFK’s assassination – is this not an early moving image example of a citizen journalism? Without it the event may never have been recorded. 
• The principle, facilitated and buoyed by new media technology, has evolved to become a key development in journalism for the 21st century
• ‘ordinary people’ are able to report stories important to them via social media and web based platforms 
• Use their own documentation, written, video or photographic , of both minor and even major events. 
• IMPLICATIONS …….. 
• Diverse content with a variety of styles, tones and purposes ¡ Labelled ‘Mass Self-Communication’(Manuel Castells, 2007) 
• Includes : 
• reader forums on newspapers and other discussions online 
• ongoing blogs § hyperlocal news sites 
• Individual perspectives - raw, unedited photographs and videos 
• coverage of major socio political events such as the Arab Spring uprisings of 2011. 
• However, ‘CITIZEN JOURNALISM’ itself as a concept is NOT new or indeed merely a product of new media. 
• It’s a phenomena which dates back centuries – notably in Britain to the time of the 17th century Civil War, where Royalists and their rival Parliamentarians would publish newspapers freely criticising each other. 
• Think about the iconic cine footage of JFK’s assassination – is this not an early moving image example of a citizen journalism? Without it the event may never have been recorded. 
• The principle, facilitated and buoyed by new media technology, has evolved to become a key development in journalism for the 21st century 
• ‘ordinary people’ are able to report stories important to them via social media and web based platforms
• Use their own documentation, written, video or photographic , of both minor and even major events. ¡ IMPLICATIONS …….. 
• Diverse content with a variety of styles, tones and purposes 
• Labelled ‘Mass Self-Communication’(Manuel Castells, 2007) 
• Includes : reader forums on newspapers and other discussions online, ongoing blogs, hyperlocal news sites, Individual perspectives - raw, unedited photographs and videos 
•  coverage of major socio political events such as the Arab Spring uprisings of 2011. 
• Given the criticism increasingly leveled at major news organisations, and TV news in particular, of ‘cronyism’ and ‘elitism’ is this a more democratic alternative? 
• “The rise of citizen journalism will help us listen. The ability of anyone to make the news will give new voice to people who’ve felt voiceless- and whose words we need to hear” (Gilmore, D, 2004, Arizona State University) 
• Challenge the status quo ? 
• A voice for ‘ordinary people’ ? 
• Self regulated, with public access, file sharing and participation and engagement at it’s heart –too good to be true? 
• Democratizing effect – engaging a wider range of voices 
• Increasing activism – building new networked communities, challenging the ‘big’ institutions 
•  Extending public service (civic) journalism 
• Establishing new news values of independence and investigation ¡ Self regulating and self directed – more free than traditional TV news 
• Facilitating local and global communication ¡ Free from business pressures of traditional news organisations 
• ‘Humanizing’ effect on reporting 
• Range of emotion and ‘humanizing’ effect on coverage. 
•  Immediate and impactful quality of mobile footage. 
• Images to support running stories 
•  Increasing access to live events 
• Personal/‘eye-witness’ accounts 
• Primary information to stimulate investigative journalism 
• This new ‘eco-system’ where the audience become the creators of news content could, increase ‘communitarism’ and ‘ultra-local journalism’
• Thus improving the quality and extent of news coverage. 
• (Bowman and Willis) During the 2003 US/UK invasion of Iraq, a blog called ‘Baghdad Burning’ emerged as an archetypal piece of CJ work. 
• Under the moniker of ‘Riverbend’ (used to protect her identity and thus safety) a woman from the war zone itself provided a very personal and alternate perspective on the situation in Baghdad from that widely reported on major news networks.

Problems with citizen Journalists?

• With the day to day constraints of TV news, their ability to ‘patrol’ through investigation Is often limited. 
• However, CJs, some argue, can act as ‘watchdogs’ over society, in one example policing the police - In 2011 a student at a peaceful demonstration at the University of California recorded campus officers using pepper spray on protestors 
• This footage went viral and threw the spotlight on civil rights abuses in a way which, given the low key nature of the event, was unlikely to be captured by TV news. 
• Again CAUTION must be exercised – when acting as a watchdog there are risks and, without the protection of a large news organization and it’s lawyers individuals can be vulnerable, particularly when operating within harsh regimes in parts of the world where civil rights abuses are not uncommon. 
• E.g. in Syrian a CJ, Basil al-Sayed was killed whilst videoing government violence against protestors there. (Wall, M.: 2012 :6) 
• With traditional news journalism now merely the ‘ghost’ of democracy in action, citizen journalism is, according to advocates such as Jay Rosen, the only way to re-connect and restore trust in the news media. 
• Ideally through a closer relationship between citizen and traditional, professional journalists working together with shared sources to produce fairer, more accurate and diverse news coverage. 
• Unprofessional content by unregulated and unethical writers reporting without consequences for their misrepresentation 
• Sloppy journalism, grammatically inaccurate. 
• Journalism on the cheap and without the benefit of legal and other safeguards from harm – eg national security implications 
• Individualistic and irrelevant to wider audiences 
• Unverifiable, incomplete and unchecked content often by anonymous contributors able to avoid the usual checks on journalists (ie bylines) 
• Propagandistic ‘licensed voyeurism’/ethical issues 
• Another nail in the dumbing down coffin for journalism – trivial A dangerous fad that is already in decline & Copyright!!!

Is Anything Actually Trustworthy?

• Has the rise in trivia and self-scheduling resulted in a world in which we are potentially in touch with more information than ever, but in fact actually find out less and less because we only choose to find out/re-affirm what we already believe? 
• Does TV news really address our needs, or merely cheat us into believing we are getting ‘the facts’ and hearing a ‘balanced’ view of the world and it’s problems and priorities? 
• Do we hear new facts which are independently analysed and investigations made into why events happen? Or does the news merely re-iterate the same views from the same people? 
• Consider your own experiences of making news pieces – who was filtering and checking your work for accuracy and fairness?

For Discussion

• 
  
• Do CJs complement or contradict traditional journalistic values? 
• How credible is CJ content and does it threaten professional journalism? 
• How vulnerable to propagandists and extremists is UGC? 
• How ethical is it to witness, record and then distribute content when you are not a professional? 
• What does CJ content mean more ideals of censorship? 
• Is CJ the key to democratizing the news or is it more vulnerable to commercialisation?